December 2, 1823: The Monroe Doctrine
You are there: Despite its impressive military victory over Britain in 1815, America continues to face threats to its borders in North America from Spain, Russia and Britain. The challenge to the south comes from King Ferdinand VII of Spain who regains his thrown in 1813 after Joseph Napoleon is exiled. Once back in power, he finds the near total collapse of his colonial empire from Mexico through Central and South America.
It is Venezuelan born Simon Bolivar, El Libertador, who leads the charge to drive Spain from the Americas. Bolivar’s battles with Spanish Royalists begin in 1811 and come to fruition in 1820 with his Gran Colombia consortium that eventually gains independence for Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador and parts of Peru and Brazil.
After his losses to Bolivar, King Ferdinand is determined to hold on to his land claims in Mexico and across the western third of America. But in 1810, a revolt in Mexico begins with Catholic priest Miguel Hidalgo who cries out for public cry the transfer of land to the peasants. The campaign, however, stalls in 1811 with Hidalgo executed after a failed march on the capital. The desperate King makes his final defensive move with the controversial Adams-Onis Treaty of 1819, where he trades his “Two Floridas” to the U.S. in exchange for recognition of his sovereignty over the Mexican province of Tejas. But this too fails, and in 1821 Mexico wins its independence and control over the American west. While the U.S. Congress views Mexico as a lesser threat than Spain, pressure builds on President Monroe to protect the borders.
Ferdinand’s intrusions are mirrored by Tsar Alexander I whose 1821 Ukase (decree) claims Russian sovereignty over a large swath of North America, running from Alaska in the north and west all the way down to the 45’50” parallel within the Oregon Country.
His action reflects Russia’s long history in the region beginning in 1741 when an expedition led by the Dane, Vitus Bering, crosses an ice bridge into Alaska and opens the way for fur trappers and settlers. Russia’s first joint-stock corporation, The Russian-American Company, is chartered in 1799, and by 1812 its trading posts exist as far south as San Francisco.
At this point Russia become the fourth nation to claim rights to what is then known as the Oregon Country. Britain asserts its sole ownership based on Captain James Cook’s voyage in 1788 to the 33rd parallel — despite the 1794 Nootka Convention recognizing shared rights with Spain. The U.S. points to Robert Gray’s trip up the Columbia River in 1792 and the 1811 settlement at Ft. Astoria.
Between tensions with Spain and Mexico to the south, Russia and Britain in the northwest, and Congressional critics like Henry Clay, President James Monroe and Secretary of State John Quincy Adams decide it’s time for America to assert a foreign policy decree of its own.
The final document, known as The Monroe Doctrine, is the Virginian at his finest, the last of the Revolutionary War presidents, determined to insure the nation’s political integrity and borders from any and all foreign threats.
Monroe announces the doctrine in his to Congress of December 2, 1823. The speech is lengthy, but its essence is captured in four paragraphs.
- The U.S. is committed to seeking friendly relations with all nations.
- Only when its rights are threatened will America defend itself.
- But given the commitment to government of the people, it will always stand against dictatorships and alongside those who wish to be free. (The result being support for Bolivar and for Mexican independence.)
- Finally foreign nations should know that any attempt on their part to extend their control over to any portion of this hemisphere will be regarded as dangerous to America’s peace and safety and will be resisted by force if necessary.
While the Monroe Doctrine puts the world on notice about U.S. policy in the hemisphere, it does not immediately resolve the Oregon dispute.
Russia’s west coast colonies will linger until the 1840’s when they prove unprofitable. Then two decades will pass before another Tsar, Alexander II, sells Alaska and all other North American claims to the United States for $7million, in what critics call “Seward’s Folly.”
Likewise failure to resolve the Oregon boundary continues with America’s Manifest Destiny enthusiasts demanding a “54’40” or fight” line before the 1846 treaty with Britain finalizes the line at the 49th parallel.
