Elections

Between 1788 and 1824 the right to vote for president is limited to white landowners, the result being that early turn-out numbers are low. This remains the case until the elections of 1836 and 1840 when suffrage expands, and the popular vote count gains importance.

However, the prize all along goes to whomever gains a majority of the Electoral College votes. Within this system each state is allocated a number of votes equal to the sum of its representatives House and Senate. This scheme gives smaller states a slightly greater say in the election outcomes than if their population size was all that mattered.

After the public voting comes the time to officially elect the president. Citizens called “Electors” are chosen (typically by the Legislature) and sent to the capital to cast the state’s votes. Each Elector is originally given not one, but two ballots, to record their state’s choices. Victory then goes to the man with the highest number of Electoral Votes, while the runner up is named vice-president.

This two ballot system, however, proves chaotic in the elections of 1796 and 1800. This leads to passage in 1804 of the Twelfth Amendment which calls for a single vote for a president and running mate from within the same party.

But America’s first two elections are essentially pro-forma in nature – with George Washington sweeping to unanimous wins based on his leadership in the Revolutionary War and in overseeing the 1787 Constitutional Convention.

He takes all 69 Electoral Votes in 1788 and all 132 in 1792. In both races, John Adams becomes Vice-President, defeating John Jay (36-9) on the two ballot system in 1792 and George Clinton (77-50) in 1796.

Given his stated aversion to partisan politics, Washington becomes the only president to run as an Independent. For those who fear a monarchy in America, the fact that he is childless is viewed with relief.

22.0 George Washington’s Unanimous President Victories

Congressional support for Washington continues in both chambers up until the 1795 mid-terms when the House swings against him.

22.1 Congressional Elections: 1778 – 1795

The economy grows very rapidly throughout Washington’s terms.

22.2 Economic Results: 1790-1796

After Washington departs, the first genuinely contested election takes place in 1796. It pits Federalist John Adams against Thomas Jefferson who runs as a Democratic-Republican. Both are Founding Fathers, but differ sharply over the division of power between the federal government and the “sovereign states.” While intermittently friends and enemies for decades, they finally reconcile late in life and happen to die on the same day, July 4, 1826, the 50^th anniversary of Independence.

The outcome in 1796 is very close, with Adams squeaking out a bare majority of 51.1% of the Electoral Votes based on his dominance in the North.

But Adams then learns to his dismay that Jefferson has come in second by 68-59 under the two ballot Electoral College system, and will thus serve as his Vice-President instead of the Federalist Thomas Pinckney!

22.3 The Election of 1796

Adams trails the Democrat-Republicans in the 1797 mid-term, but reverses that in 1799 with his strong response to threats of war with France.

22.4 Congressional Elections:1797-1799

A GDP slowdown in 1797 is followed by vigorous growth at the end of the term.

22.5 Economic Results: 1799-1800

But once in office, Adams’ crusty personality alienates many supporters and his 1798 Alien and Sedition Act is widely regarded as violating the 1^st Amendment in an attempt to jail his political opponents. So he is considered vulnerable for re-election.

This draws four men into the 1800 race:

22.6 Candidates in the Election of 1800

At first glance the outcome looks clear, with Jefferson winning the popular vote by a 60:40% margin and the Electoral Vote by 73 to 65.

22.7 The Public Election of 1800

But chaos follows when, under the two ballots system, Aaron Burr ends up with the same number (73) of Electoral College Votes as Jefferson. So instead of Burr being named Vice-President as intended, the tie requires a second run-off election.

Aaron Burr is encouraged to withdraw, but he is a fiercely ambitious man who fights valiantly alongside Washington during the Revolutionary War. He is also critical of Jefferson for sitting it out safely in various political offices. So a “contingent election is set.

It takes place in the Federalist controlled U.S. House, with each of the sixteen states allocated one equal vote and a requirement that the winner must achieve a majority of nine. After 35 votes, a stalemate persists – as two states, Vermont and Maryland, cast “blank ballots” after internal divisions.

22.8 1800 Contingent Election: 1^st 35 Ballots

On the 36^th ballot the tie is finally broken after a furious letter writing campaign is launched by Alexander Hamilton against Burr, whom he characterizes as a “dangerous man” lacking in principles. Both divided states now go with Jefferson and he wins the presidency with 10 of the 16 contingent votes.

By the 1803 mid-term election, the Democratic-Republicans have achieved large margins over the Federalists in both chambers of Congress.

22.9 Congressional Elections:1801-1803

The economy suffers a sharp setback in 1802 after the First Bank of the United States continues to increase the supply of banknotes and depositors fear that their value is eroding. A rebound follows Jefferson’s 1803 Louisiana Purchase from Napoleon’s France which nearly doubles the nation’s landmass.

22.10 Economic Results: 1801-1804

After Adams defeat in 1800, the Federalists begin a sustained struggle to find a credible successor. Their first choice is Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, a South Carolina planter and lawyer, who fights alongside Washington throughout the Revolutionary War and then serves in 1896-7 as Ambassador to France. But he is no match for Jefferson when the votes are cast.

22.11 The Election of 1804

The Democrat-Republicans’ dominance also extends to the Congressional mid-term of 1807.

22.12 Congressional Elections:1805-1807

Throughout Jefferson’s second term, he is caught in the middle of the escalating global war between France and England. As former Minister to France, his instincts favor their cause, and Napoleon is able to manipulate his political moves all along. This results in a series of trade embargos, first in 1805 on British goods, which reacts by beginning to impress U.S. sailors on the high seas, a portent to the War of 1812.

Then comes the Embargo of 1807, signed in December of that year, which effectively collapses the U.S. economy. A chagrined Jefferson repeals the Act on December 23, 1808 as his final term comes to a close.

22.13 Economic Results: 1805-1808

The election of 1808 is the only time in history where a party fields the same ticket that lost in the prior election. In this instance it is the reeling Federalists who again offer Pinckney and King.

Negative reactions to Jefferson’s 1807 Embargo allow the Federalists to gain Electoral Votes in the North, but these are not enough to keep Secretary of State, James Madison, from a landslide victory.

22.14 The Election of 1808

Madison also enjoys large margins in both the House and the Senate.

22.15 Congressional Elections: 1809-1811

America’s economy is sluggish under the shadow of the Napoleonic Wars. Passage of Macon’s Bill Number 2 ends the embargo on all foreign trading and supports an uptick in GDP growth in 1811. But uncertainty returns as Napoleon begins his six month long invasion of Russia. When it is turned back in December 1812 around Moscow, the upper hand in the conflict goes to Britain.

22.16 Economic Results: 1809-1812

On June 18, 1812, five months before the next presidential election, Congress declares war on Britain in response to Madison’s list of mostly maritime grievances. In spite of this turbulence, the president is easily re-elected over DeWitt Clinton, the sitting Mayor of New York City, whose fame for opening the Erie Canal is still a decade in the future.

22.17 The Election of 1812

As in Madison’s first term, the Democratic-Republicans control Congress.

22.18 Congressional Elections: 1813-1815

Once war is declared, the economy exhibits a familiar boom and bust cycle. In 1813, GDP jumps by 23% as every sector increases production to supply the military. Then comes a drop in demand as the fighting slows in 1814 and effectively ends with Andrew Jackson’s victory at New Orleans on January 8, 1815. GDP falls by double digits in 1815 and 1816, beginning a depression that lasts for roughly six years.

22.19 Economic Results: 1813-1816

As the election of 1816 approaches, the Federalists are in total disarray. Though not even officially nominated, Rufus King is their placeholder, absent a running mate. King’s background includes membership on the Committee of Style and Arrangement that crafts the U.S. Constitution at Philadelphia. But he carries only three states and is swept away by Secretary of State, James Monroe.

22.20 The Election of 1816

The Democrat-Republicans also extend their majorities in Congress.

22.21 Congressional Elections: 1816-1818

Monroe inherits the deep recession that begins in 1815 and GDP trends remain in negative territory.

22.22 Economic Results: 1817-1820

Despite his economic troubles, Monroe becomes the only president to run unopposed in the 1820 election. This is the so-called “Era of Good Feelings,” and Monroe wins every Electoral College Vote. That’s until a “faithless” New Hampshire Elector, William Plumer, casts his vote for John Quincy Adams to preserve Washington’s legacy as the only unanimous choice.

22.23 The Election of 1820

Monroe continues to enjoy control over both chambers of Congress.

Congressional Elections: 1820-1822

But his track record on the economy remains spotty.

Economic Results: 1821-1824

After six consecutive terms under presidents from Virginia, the 1824 race is wide open, with four contenders, all running as Democratic-Republicans. Ex- Senate Pro Tem, William Crawford is thought to be the leading candidate, although a severe stroke suffered in 1823 reduces his odds. John Quincy Adams, son of a president, brings conservative principles to the race, along with sitting House Speaker, Henry Clay.

However it is Andrew Jackson, the “hero of New Orleans,” who gathers the most popular and Electoral College votes, albeit falling short of the majority required.

22.20 The Election of 1824

This outcome sets in motion another “contingent election” in the U.S. House, with the three top vote-getters – Jackson, Adams and Crawford – competing, according to the 1824 Twelfth Amendment rules. Each of the 24 States casts one vote, with 13 needed to win.

It is Henry Clay, however, that maneuvers the outcome from behind the scenes. He hates Jackson, issuing this appraisal:

“I cannot believe that killing 2,500 Englishmen at New Orleans qualifies for the various
difficult and complicated duties of the Chief Magistracy.”

Clay’s arm twisting hands Adams the win on the first ballot with the minimum 13 vote count.

22.21 Votes in the 1824 Contingent Election

When Adams turns around and names Clay as his Secretary of State, Jackson labels the election a “corrupt bargain,” and vow to get his revenge against both men in 1828.

Adams actually holds a slim majority in the House at first, until giving it up in the mid-terms.

22.22 Congressional Elections: 1824-1826

The recession that carries over from Madison fades during 1825, and GDP makes gains in the next two years.

22.23 Economic Results: 1825-1828

The 1828 race is marred by previously unheard of levels of mudslinging. The Adams’ forces label Jackson as a bigamist, Negro trader, gambler, drunkard and murderer. A late retort makes the improbably charge that Adams provided a prostitute to Russian Emperor Alexander I while serving as Ambassador, and that he was a spendthrift for buying a billiards table for the White House.

On election day, Jackson capitalizes on a huge jump in turn-out as the ban on suffrage to non-landowners is lifted. He runs as a Democrat instead of a Democratic-Republican, a man of the South and West, and as a symbol of the common man against the establishment.

He captures 55% of the popular votes and a 178-83 margin in the Electoral College. He even manages to match Adams’ performance in the Northern states.

22.24 The Election of 1828

Jackson achieves a lead in the House, while trailing in the Senate.

22.25  Congressional Elections: 1828-1830

The economy performs solidly during his first term.

22.26 Economic Results: 1829-1832

Jackson roars into the White House behind an aggressive agenda:

1. Moving the tribes from their southeastern homelands to reservations west of the Mississippi.
2. Shut down the Second Bank of the U.S. as elitist and corrupt.
3. Rely on gold and silver specie to preserve the true value of the currency.
4. End the federal debt by downsizing the size of government and its spending.
5. Avoid any erosion in the cohesion of the Union.

In 1830 the Indian Removal Act delivers on his first priority, and in 1832 he effectively ends the Second Bank by shifting all of its deposits into state bank.

But the term surfaces internal turmoil in the so-called “Petticoat Affair,” where Vice-President John Calhoun’s wife, Floride, spreads vicious gossip about Peggy Eaton, wife of Secretary of War, John Eaton. In response, Jackson disbands every member except for his Postmaster General and forms a so-called “Kitchen Cabinet” comprising his long term trusted confidents.

As the 1832 race approaches, now Senator Henry Clay has had enough of Jackson’s attempts to stifle his “American System” which demands spending on infrastructure projects to support a diverse, industrialized economy.

Clay is joined by two other candidates, each with their own geographic pockets of strength. Clay wins 37% of the popular vote, while Southerner John Floyd carries North Carolina and William Wirt takes Vermont. But this is not enough to dislodge Jackson, who prevails with large majorities in the Electoral College.

22.27 The Election of 1832

The Congress remains divided in Jackson’s second term, with the House on his side, but the Senate tilting slightly away.

22.28 Congressional Elections: 1832-1834

On November 24, 1832, shortly after Jackson’s reelection, Calhoun foments another crisis in an Ordinance of Nullification announcing that South Carolina will refuse to collect tariffs imposed by Congress on foreign imports. Jackson regards this as a threat to the Union and 16 days later issues a proclamation opposing the action, and threatening to send the military to enforce the law. No other states follow South Carolina’s lead and Calhoun resigns as VP by the end of December.

Jackson next shifts his focus to securing the value of the currency against speculators and paying off the federal debt, which he does in 1837. His efforts on the money supply, however, backfire after he demands that future land sale payments be made in gold or silver, not soft banknotes. Upon hearing this new, “runs” by depositors result in the Bank Panic of 1837, which plagues his successor.

22.29 Economic Results: 1833-1836)

Having failed to beat his nemesis, Jackson, Henry Clay, now under the Whig banner, aims at Martin Van Buren in 1836. “Little Matty” speaks Dutch as a child and is unique in acquiring English as a second language. But he thrives in the rough and tumble world of New York politics, mastering the art of patronage along the way.

Clays campaign strategy lies in trying to deprive Van Buren of an Electoral College majority by running four candidates against him, each with different geographic strengths. This almost succeeds, but not quite, as the Democrat records 170 Electoral Votes against the 147 threshold.

22.30 The Election of 1836

Van Buren enjoys an edge in Congress, although his margin in the House mid-terms shrinks.

22.31 Congressional Elections: 1836-1838

What Matty cannot overcome is the economic burden handed him by Jackson’s 1837 Specie Circular and the resulting Bank Panic of 1837. GDP growth is sluggish at first and then actually declines in 1840, leaving the party vulnerable to further challenges.

22.32 Economic Results: 1837-1841

This economic vulnerability finds Van Buren joining JQ Adams as the only incumbents to lose re-election until Cleveland’s failure in 1888. This time around, Clay supports the War of 1812 military hero, 68 year old William Henry Harrison, long departed from politics. Unfortunately, in an effort to balance the ticket with a Southerner, the delegates choose John Tyler of Virginia.

Together they run as “Tippecanoe and Tyler Too,” and soundly defeat Van Buren.

22.33 The Election of 1840

Another first-time outcome finds the Whigs winning both chambers in Congress, only to lose them in the mid-terms after Tyler turns out to be a Whig imposters.

22.34 Congressional Elections: 1840-1842

For the Whigs, the joy of electing their first president and Congress vanishes when Harrison dies after 27 days in office, and is succeeded by John Tyler who spends the next four years opposing every one of Clay’s American System spending initiatives. The “Accidental President” is quickly expelled from the Whig Party but cannot be removed from the White House.

Tyler’s moves frustrate the needed infrastructure upgrades and the economy drifts during his term.

22.35 Economic Results: 1841-1844

Clay feels the wind at his back going into 1844 and makes his second and final run for president.
While hoping that a weakened Van Buren will be his opponent, the Democrats nominate James Knox Polk, a Tennessee native and protégé of none other than Andrew Jackson.

In the South, the Democrats paint Clay as an abolitionist, while in the North they sight his reputation as a gambler, womanizer, duelist and drunk. They attacked his highly religious running mate as an anti-Catholic bigot. Clay is further hurt by resisting a Texas Annexation, fearing that it will spark a war with Mexico. Polk supports the Texans and the entire Manifest Destiny movement west.

The outcome is close, but again Clay falls short.

22.36 The Election of 1844

The Democrats control over Congress fades in the House during the mid-terms as the
Mexican War breaks out.

22.37 Congressional Elections: 1844-1846

With the war, comes the Boom Cycle that drives GDP growth, which reaches a zenith in 1847 before dropping off in 1848 after the American victory.

22.38 Economic Results: 1845-1849

As the fighting progresses, Polk asks the House to approve a $2million requisition to fund the troops. This results in a shocking amendment to the bill offered by a Pennsylvania Democrat, David Wilmot. It becomes known as the “Wilmot Proviso” and it says he will back the spending provided that slavery is banned on any land ceded from Mexico after the conflict. When the Proviso is approved in the House along North vs. South not Whig vs. Democrat lines, fears of disunion accelerate.

Although the South is able to table the Wilmot Amendment in the Senate, it convinces Ohio abolitionist and political strategist, Salmon P. Chase, that the Democrats might be defeated in 1848. The key will lie in creating a new option which he titles the Free Soil Party. It “fuses” two disparate factions who share a wish to ban slavery in the west: the major wing wanting to keep the land exclusively for white farmers; the minor wing consisting of those who wish to end slavery on moral grounds. Chase creates a slogan – Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Speech, Free Men –and hopes that his party will siphon off Democrat votes in the North.

And that is what happens. The Democrat candidate, Michigan Senator Lewis Cass, retains only 66 Electoral College Vote vs. the 120 enjoyed by Polk in the prior race. He loses out to Mexican War hero, Zachary Taylor, a southern plantation owner, whose Whig credentials are flimsy at best. Taylor’s running mate is Millard Fillmore, serving Comptroller of New York.

22.39 The Election of 1848

Unlike W.H. Harrison in 1840, the Whigs fail to win the House and trail far behind in the Senate.

22.40 Congressional Elections: 1848-1850

An immediate challenge for Taylor comes with the 1849 California gold rush. It brings a sudden flood of prospective miners onto the land, forcing demands for immediate admission to the Union. When its Constitution calls for Free State status, the South resists on three grounds: first, the surrender of prime sites for future plantations; second the loss of windfall profits from slave auctions in the west; and third, the fact that California would upset the 15:15 North-South balance in the Senate.

The controversy brings Henry Clay to the forefront with efforts to pass yet another of his Union saving compromises. His best efforts fail, and he leaves the Washington scene for the last time before his death. Democrat Senator Stephen A. Douglas steps in, splits Clay’s Omnibus Bill into five parts, and leads passage of the 1850 Compromise. In exchange for the California admission, the South gains a more forceful Fugitive Slave Bill, along with assurance of no outright bans on other western territories. Instead, Douglas calls for “popular sovereignty” elections whereby local residents would decide on a Free vs. Slave State designation.

Prior to completion of Douglas’ bill, Polk becomes the second Whig president to die in office, this time on July 9, 1850, perhaps by gastroenteritis or by drinking contaminated water piped into the White House from the Potomac River.

His short-lived economic record shows modest growth after a slowdown following the end of the Mexican War.

22.41 -Economic Results: 1849-1850

Polk’s successor, Millard Fillmore, has little impact during his 31 months in office. He backs the 1850 Compromise and development of a transcontinental railroad, while also restoring diplomatic contacts in Mexico and dispatching Commodore Matthew Perry to open trade with Japan. The economy grows strongly at the end of his tenure.

22.42 Economic Results: 1851-1852

Fillmore lacks the stature to win the Whig nomination in 1852, and it goes to a third military hero, Commander of the United States Army, Winfield Scott. “Old Fuss and Feathers” is 66 years old when nominated and weighs nearly 300 lbs. His opponent is ex-New Hampshire Senator and Mexican War brigadier, Franklin Pierce, a “dark horse” candidate, who is chosen on the 49^th ballot after Lewis Cass, Stephen Douglas and James Buchanan fail to gain a majority.

The general ends with a relatively easy victory for the more vigorous Pierce.

22.43 The Election of 1852

The Democrats retain control of Congress throughout Pierce’s term, although the mid-term marks the high-water mark for the Know Nothing Party which takes 51 House seats. This faction is also referred to as the American or Nativist Party, dedicated to resisting the immigration of Irish and German Catholics arriving in the mid-1840’s after the potato famine and the failed anti-monarchy rebellions. It will soon fold as the public focus turns to slavery not foreigners.

22.44 Congressional Elections: 1852-1854

GDP gains remain strong under Pierce, until a slowdown in 1856 as turmoil in the Kansas Territory erupts.

22.45 Economic Results: 1853-1856

On May 30, 1854, Congress approves Stephen Douglas’ Kansas-Nebraska Act which opens up two new western Territories. According to the 30’36” boundary line in the 1820 Missouri Compromise, both should automatically be declared Free. Except that Douglas’ Bill reneges on the Missouri line in favor of popular sovereignty elections to decide.

The 1854 Bill, also backed by Pierce, sparks two immediate reactions: first it prompts the founding of the Republic Party with Lincoln re-entering the national stage; and second it sets off a series of violent Free State vs. Slaves State clashes in Kansas that will continue for five years running.

By the end of 1855, Pro-Slavery forces from Missouri have made a mockery of Douglas’ popular sovereignty plan by crashing the polls in Kansas to elect their “bogus legislature.” When the first of what will become six Territorial Governors reports the fraud, Pierce fires him.

Things go downhill from there in 1856, with escalating acts of violence. In May alone, the Free State capital at Lawrence is sacked, abolitionist John Brown responds with his Potawatomie Massacre, and back in Washington, Charles Sumner is nearly caned to death at his Senate desk by an irate Southern congressman. It is only the arrival in September 1856 of the third Governor, General John Geary, that dampens the fighting.

A wounded Pierce attempts to win the nomination in 1856, but is stopped first by Stephen Douglas and then by James Buchanan who wins on the 15^th ballot. No man has better credentials for the presidency and no man ends as a bigger failure in the job. Buchanan has been a House and Senate member, Ambassador to Russia and England, and Secretary of State when nominated. But he is also known as a Doughface, born in the north but totally dedicated to supporting southern causes to ensure his political aspirations.

Meanwhile the Republican Party is struggling to get sufficiently organized to defeat Buchanan. It obvious choice to lead the ticket is New York Senator William Seward, but he drops out of contention on the advice of his political strategist, Thurlow Weed, who says that Buchanan is unbeatable. Instead, the western “pathfinder,” John C. Fremont, is nominated. Abraham Lincoln comes in second for the Vice-President slot, losing to New Jersey’s William Dayton.

At the height of their popularity, the American or Know Nothing Party enters, led by Millard Fillmore, still intent on reelection.

Buchanan prevails in November, dominating in the Slave States, but with only 45% of the popular vote.

22.46 The Election of 1856

The Democrats strengthen their majority in the House, before losing it to the Republicans in the mid-terms.

22.47 Congressional Elections: 1856-1858

When progress on a transcontinental railroad stalls, speculators who have bought up land along possible routes are unable to cover their loans and the Bank Panic of 1857 follows.

22.48 Economic Results: 1857-1860

As Buchanan’s term begins, he thinks he has the solution to the slavery crises when the Supreme Court decision in Dred Scott v Sanford finds that bondage is guaranteed in the Constitution and that those enslaved have no standing or rights in court. But the Republicans, including Lincoln, argue that is not settled law given the multiple dissenting opinions in the case.

From there, the remainder of Buchanan’s term is dominated by the ongoing struggle in “Bloody Kansas” which eventually causes his downfall. To save his southern support, he tries repeatedly to bully Congress into admitting Kansas under the Lecompton Constitution, making it a Slave State. This persists even after fair elections there prove that the settlers favor a Free State government. In December 1857 Douglas finally splits with him, refusing to support Lecompton and in turn being labeled by Buchanan as a traitor to the south.

Douglas then refocuses his energy on winning reelection to the Senate, which leads to a series of eight debates with Abraham Lincoln across Illinois. The central issue is slavery, with Douglas accusing Lincoln of being an abolitionist who favors interracial marriage. While Lincoln wavers on his support for absolute equality, the debates are covered nationally and make him a credible Republican candidate going forward. In the end, the Democrat controlled Illinois Legislature hands the Senate position to Douglas.

Regional tension boils over again on October 16, 1859 when abolitionist John Brown invades the town of Harper’s Ferry intending to form an army of slaves to attack plantations across Virginia. The attack is put down by military troops under Robert E. Lee and Brown is tried and then hanged on December 2. Insult is added to injury when northern Transcendentalists compare Brown’s martyrdom on the gallows to Christ’s death on the cross.

With Buchanan’s administration reeling, the party’s gather to nominate their candidates for the 1860 race.

The Democrat go first, meeting in Charleston in April, where a crushing schism is played out between the Douglas supporters and southerners who no longer trust him or his popular sovereignty to protect the expansion of slavery to the west. A walk-out by nine southern states erases Douglas’ hope to gain the 2/3^rd of all delegates required, and after 57 ballots, he adjourns to convention, scheduling a follow up for Baltimore in mid-June.

The Republican convention is held in May in Chicago which jams the Wigwam Hall with supporters of Lincoln as their favorite son. William Seward expects to win and holds a small lead on the first ballot. By the third, however, Lincoln’s floor managers lead him to a convincing victory. As expected, the platform calls for a ban on slavery in the west.

Also in May comes the Constitutional Union Party comprising many Border State Democrats intent on preventing a civil war. They choose former Tennessee Senator John Bell along with ex-Whig Senator and famed orator, Edward Everett, as Vice-President.

The second Democrat convention mirrors the first, with an opening clash over seating credentials and a platform battle leading to a final schism in the party. The break-away Southern Democrats nominate sitting Vice-President John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky.
The remaining Northern Democrats finally choose Douglas.

The race itself is a fiasco. Lincoln’s name never appears on southern ballots, so the only issue is whether or not he can win enough northern Electoral Votes over Douglas to secure a majority.
The answer is yes, as he take 170 of the 303 or 56%. But the fact that he wins on 39.7% of the popular vote signals the challenges he will face in office.

22.49 The Election of 1860

The Republican continue control over the House in 1861, while the Democrats hold a majority of one seat in the Senate. As the Civil War breaks out, the resignations of southern Senators, hands over the upper chamber. In the House, those who oppose the course of the war cut into the Republican margin at the mid-terms.

22.50 Congressional Elections: 1860-1862

As with America’s prior wars, the Boom Cycle drives huge early growth in GDP.

22.51 Economic Results: 1861-1864

It also has a devastating effect on the federal debt which jumps to almost $2 Billion in 1864 despite Lincoln’s imposition of the first personal income tax in 1863.

22.52 Recap on U.S. Income and Debt (000)

On February 8, 1861, a month before Lincoln is inaugurated, the Confederate State of America is founded in Montgomery. Two months later, on April 13, 1861, the opening battle in the war takes place at Ft. Sumter on April 13, 1861.

The South demands that it be allowed to leave peacefully, but Lincoln will have none of that. He knows that the outcome would be the expansion of slavery into the west. He also declares that the conflict is an insurrection, not an official war which would imply that the CSA was a separate nation, worthy of international recognition.

Despite overwhelming inferiority in military resources, the South prevails in many of the major battles early on, due in large part to the talent of its general officers, especially Robert E. Lee. But the tide turns in the summer of 1863 when Lee makes his second invasion of the North, only to suffer a crushing loss at Gettysburg on July 3. When July 4 finds Ulysses Grant capturing the Confederates Mississippi River bastion at Vicksburg, ultimate victory for the Union is assured.

Bitter fighting continues as the 1864 election approaches, with Grant’s extended siege of Petersburg moving in parallel with General Sherman’s drive south into Georgia. But the bloodshed to get that far has mounted, and the Democrats are counting on war weariness in the North to upend Lincoln’s re-election.

Those Democrats who favor an immediate end to the conflict are labeled Copperheads (snakes in the grass) by the Republicans. Their choice of ex-General George McClellan to head the ticket is a stark reminder of the hostility that existed at the start of the war: “Little Mac” calling Lincoln a “gorilla” and Lincoln sacking him twice as head of the Union army.

Lincoln fears that he will lose, and even prepares plans to turn the government over to McClellan. But then on July 22, 1864, Sherman captures Atlanta and begins his famous March to the Sea toward Savannah. The public is now reassured that a victorious end is approaching.

Backed by heavy support from Union soldiers, Lincoln takes the popular vote by a comfortable 55-45% margin at the November 8 election.

22.53 The Election of 1864

Lincoln’s dominance carries over to the House and Senate results.

22.54 Congressional Election: 1864

What follows the re-election is another five months of fighting until April 9, 1865, when Lee surrenders to Grant at Appomattox. Then, four days later, the country is shocked further by the assassination of President Lincoln.

For America the Civil War is Greek tragedy writ large. A heroic symbol in the form of an idealistic new nation. A fatal flaw in its wanton embrace of chattel slavery and racism. Then bloody combat, 750,000 deaths, economic ruin, a dead leader and a precarious future.

The federal debt reaches almost $2.7 Billion in 1865.

22.55 Federal Debt: 1864 – 1865

The Bust Cycle following wars finds the GDP declining over the last three years of President Andrew Johnson’s term.

22.55 Economic Results: 1865-1868

Economics Professor Mark Weidenmier estimates that the South loses 50% of its production capacity as a result of the war. Partial recovery for the nation as a whole extends throughout the Reconstruction phase from 1865 to 1877, after which growth again surges ahead.

22.55 Economic Results: 1870-1885