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Test Chatper 1




Chapter 1 Text with Linked Citations

Starting around 16,000 BC, or earlier, America’s first settlers wend their way across a 1000 mile “land bridge,” formed by a sea level drop in the Bering Straits, which once linked the eastern edges of Siberia to western-most Alaska.1 Their facial features signal an Asian heritage, and they are typically dark complexioned.5 They operate in tribes and become adept at both hunting and gathering.9 They are the first farmers of the land, sustained by a wide range of indigenous crops, including corn, potatoes, peanuts, chocolate, cotton and tobacco.14

Thus the New World is Born.

Over time the settlers fan out across the northern continent, east to the Atlantic coast and south through Mexico to the southern hemisphere.19 Along the way they build enduring civilizations.

The Tlingit people of the Pacific Northwest master the arts of fishing and record their history on totem poles.24 The Hohokam tribes of Arizona introduce irrigation.28 The Hopewell nation flourishes in the Midwest from Missouri to Wisconsin and east through Illinois and Indiana, their past evident in huge burial mounds throughout the region.37 The Algonquians extend across Canada from the Rockies to New England, chasing seasonal food supplies with their portable wigwams.30 They eventually collide with the Iroquoians, who flourish in New York and the upper Atlantic states.60 Meanwhile the Southeast is home to what will later become known as the “five civilized tribes” – the Cherokee, Choctaws, Creeks, Chickasaw and Seminoles.66 By 1500 AD Native American civilizations, speaking upwards of 250 unique languages, dot the landscape from coast to coast.70

The European intrusion into the New World begins by accident.

Since Roman times, Europe is attracted to the spices of Asia – cinnamon, cardamom, ginger, pepper, turmeric, not to mention opium.78 But the overland trade routes to the East are precarious.12 Instead, perhaps by sailing west, a shorter and more commercially favorable route could be found.12

This is what Christopher Columbus has in mind on October 12, 1492, when he begins his voyage with three ships, in service to the Spanish crown.28 After 70 days at sea, he encounters land, most likely the tiny island of San Salvador.1 From there he spends the next three months navigating his way south to Cuba, then east to Hispaniola (later Haiti and the Dominican Republic).28 Along the way, he encounters natives with gold earrings, whom he describes as docile in nature, lacking in weaponry, and easily capable of being conquered, converted to Christianity and placed into servitude.1

Still believing he has found his way to India, Columbus refers to the islands as the East Indies, and the natives as “Indios” or Indians.104 He kidnaps many along the way, and some 7-8 who survive the journey home are put on display as proof of his success.111 On March 4, 1493 Columbus is back in Portugal.83 Despite losing his lead ship, Santa Maria, and failing to locate any spice treasures, his encounter with the Caribbean islands sets off an exploration frenzy that lasts over the next two centuries.28

In turn America becomes a sought-after chip in the game played by the monarchs of Spain, France and England for control over Europe and for global hegemony.12

Spain takes the lead as the dominant power in Europe after the 1469 marriage of two Catholic monarchs, Isabelle of Castille and Ferdinand of Aragon, unify the nation, and dynastic matches of their children extend their power into Portugal and the Hapsburg dynasty.8

It is their grandson, Charles I, who reigns supreme from 1516 to 1558 over much of Europe, including Spain, Italy and the sprawling remnants of the Holy Roman Empire, from the Netherlands in the north to Austria-Hungary in the south.14

King Charles is a Catholic monarch, who battles against the Protestant Reformation, sparked by Martin Luther in 1517, and against France in various European wars.14 He is also remembered for sending his conquistadors across the Atlantic after gold and territory in the Americas.28

Two remarkable civilizations fall to his swords and cannon in short order, as Hernan Cortez conquers Montezuma and the Aztec empire by 152133 and Francisco Pizarro ends the Incas rule over Peru in 1541.63

Hernando De Soto rampages through Central America and the Caribbean, then north to Florida and west to Louisiana.36 Alvar Cabeza and Francisco Coronado extend De Soto’s tracks in America, driving through Texas to Arizona and up through Oklahoma to Kansas.156 Some fifty years later, in 1596, Sebastien Vizcaino explores the west coast, from San Diego to Oregon.161

So Spain is first to assert its “rights” throughout the New World.117

By 1600, it controls much of the Caribbean Islands, Peru, Central America, Mexico, and over half of the North American continent from Florida across the deep South to San Diego, then north to Oregon.111

But Spain comes to the New World more as plunderers than as settlers.111 In North America, their main attempts at establishing deep roots occur in the Floridas, notably at St. Augustine in 156521, in Santa Fe around 159810 and Texas in San Antonio by 1717.182

The failure of Spain to populate and formally colonize in North America will come back to haunt them when their land claims are later threatened by France and the United States.111

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